Case Analysis: Profitability of Wendy’s Chilli Essay

Dave Thomas, the founder of Wendy’s restaurant, opened his first restaurant on November 15, 1969 in Columbus, Ohio. Dave was born in Atlantic City, New Jersey on July 2, 1932. He was adopted at six weeks old by Rex and Auleva Thomas. Dave moved from state to state with his father when his mother passed at the age of 5. At the age of 12, Dave obtained his first job at a restaurant in Knoxville. Thus, he began his love for the restaurant business. At the age of 15, Dave dropped out of high school to work full time in the restaurant business. While working full-time at the Hobby House restaurant, Dave met Colonel Sanders, the founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken (now KFC). In 1962, Dave was offered the opportunity to turn around four failing Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurants in Columbus, Ohio. Utilizing his past experience, Dave turned the restaurants around, sold them back to KFC, and immediately became a millionaire all at the age of 35. He then co-founded Arthur Treacher’ s Fish and Chips. Dave again capitalized on his experiences in restaurant management when he decided to establish his own restaurant. Since hamburgers were his favorite food, Dave decided to start a restaurant that would serve a quality hamburger without a 30 minute waiting period. Named for his eight year old daughter, Dave started Wendy’s. In order to focus on quality and remain competitive, the menu was limited to four basic products excluding beverages. The product line included hamburgers, chili, french fries, and Wendy’s Frosty Dairy Dessert. Wendy’s hamburgers patties consisted of  ¼ pound of 100 percent pure domestic beef, served as a square shaped patty rather than a round shaped patty, and served â€Å"hot ‘n juicy† in accordance with individual customer orders. The french fries were sliced slightly longer and thicker from high quality potatoes and cooked in specially-designed fryers to allow the inside to be cooked without burning the outside. Wendy’s Frosty Dairy Dessert is a thick blend of vanilla and chocolate flavors and must be served with a spoon as a dessert rather than a straw. Wendy’s chili is the fourth basic menu item. Whenever the cook overestimated customer demand, beef patties stayed on the grill beyond the recommended  time. This caused the beef patties to be well done. To avoid customer dissatisfaction, Wendy’s used the â€Å"well done† beef patties that had been refrigerated from the previous day and could not be served to customers. Each eight ounce serving contained about a quarter pound of ground beef. Wendy’s chili is prepared by the assistant manager or an experienced crew member using an original recipe. The labor cost for the assistant manager and crew member is listed in Table 1. The cost to prepare the chili is listed in Table 2 below. Table 3, illustrates the direct cost associated with the production of chili. Table 1. Labor costs for assistant manager or a crew member to prepare chili in 1978 Table 2. Ingredients and costs in 1978. Table 3. Direct cost for 1978 In the event of a shortage of overcooked patties, beef patties were cooked for the sole purpose of inclusion in the chili. In order to prepare a pot of chili, it took 10 to 20 minutes of preparation time. This process required chopping the meat into small pieces, adding the other ingredients and stirring the batch six times. Sixty percent of the total annual sales for chili occurred during the months from October to March. The chili product has the lowest gross profit margin. The 1978 labor and additional direct costs are listed in Table 4 below. Table 4. Cost of Chili Preparation, Overall Cost of Chili and Profit of Chili. In November 1979, Wendy’s became the first national restaurant chain to introduce a Salad Bar on the menu. Initial test marketing of the salad bar concept had been successful. This innovative idea also posed a dilemma. If Wendy’s was to follow their limited menu concept, the salad bar would potentially replace chili since it had the lowest profit margin on a full cost basis. Then, management would be faced with containing the cost of the overcooked patties that resulted from overestimating customer demand and  cooking too many hamburgers. While hamburgers comprised 55 percent of total sales, chili sales comprised of five percent of total sales. The chili was most popular between the months of October through March. During these months, 60 percent of the total annual chili sales occurred. Management was faced with deciding which product would be best to sustain long-term profitability. Wendy’s revenues were derived from the sales made from company-owned restaurants, from royalties paid to the company by owners of franchised restaurants, from fees paid by the owners of franchised restaurants for technical assistance and from interest earned on investments. By 1978, Wendy’s operated 1,407of restaurants. Of this number, 1,119 stores were owned by franchisees. Franchised stores were built to a uniformed specification and were not located within the same market areas as company-owned stores. Most restaurants were located in urban or densely populated suburban areas; a large volume of customers was a primary factor for Wendy’s success. Each franchisee paid a $15,000 fee for technical assistance prior to the opening of a restaurant for services such as site selection, construction plans, initial training for owners and staff members, advertising materials, national purchasing agreements and operations manuals. For 1978, company-owned stores generated 84.13% of revenue, royalties generated 12.65% of revenue, technical assistance fees generated 1.87% of revenue, and interest from investments generated 1.35% of revenue. The income statement from Moody’s is listed in Table 5 below (Moody’s, 1980, p. 1565). Table 5. By focusing on a product differentiation marketing strategy, quality food, quick service and reasonable prices, Wendy’s was able to achieve its financial success and to grow rapidly at a time when the fast-food industry appeared to be saturated. The adoption of the limited menu concept also contributed to this success. Having a limited menu concept allowed Wendy’s to concentrate on the quality of a few menu items and allowed Wendy’s to quickly prepare a meal to the customer specifications. The limited menu  concept does not allow for changes in consumer preferences nor does it allow Wendy’s to compete with other fast food restaurants serving items such as chicken. In 1970, Wendy’s broke new grounds by opening a second restaurant with a unique feature. This restaurant featured a drive-thru window with a special grill within the pick-up window. Wendy’s was able to achieve success in their drive-thru window concept, because their product was served fresh from the special grill within a short span of time. While other restaurants offered a standard product through their dive-thru window, Wendy’s differentiated their concept by offering a product that was prepared fresh to the customer’s specifications. Therefore, the product delivery time did not increase when preparing the order as requested by the customer, whether in the dining room or through the pick-up window. Wendy’s used a product differentiation approach for their hamburgers. By marketing the hamburgers as a square patty rather than a round patty, Wendy’s was successful in advertising their hamburgers as â€Å"old-fashioned.† Wendy’s also cooked each hamburger in a manner that provided a customized hamburger for each customer quickly and at a reasonable price. Innovations have been the key to Wendy’s growth. Their innovative style of management has made Wendy’s a leader in the fast-food industry. By catering to young adults and adults, Wendy’s has attempted to create brand loyalty among their target customers. Wendy’s recognized the dynamic needs of their customers and consequently offered a dining experience that emphasized quality food, fast and friendly service within a setting that is common throughout all their restaurants. Wendy’s has made growth a priority in their strategic plan in order to achieve high employee retention and satisfaction rates. According to Doorley and Donovan, â€Å"employee satisfaction rises when a company grows, probably because people experience new challenges and are excited about being on a winning team (Swanson, 2001).† The introduction of a salad bar will contribute to a diversification strategy that will also augment their  innovative approach. Chart 1. Sales comparison of Wendy’s and competitors. Quality was a foundational component in the first Wendy’s restaurant. This was due largely to uncompromising passion for quality by the founder, Dave Thomas. Quality still remains the top priority in the food, people and service industry. The mission statement of Wendy’s is: â€Å"To deliver superior quality products and services for our customers and communities through leadership, innovation and partnerships (Wendy’s, 2004).† The vision statement of Wendy’s is: â€Å"to be the quality leader in everything we do (Swanson, 2001).† This core value has guided the organization and helps to define the corporate culture and distinguished Wendy’s from the competitors. Business Creations recommends Wendy’s pursue adding salads to their limited menu concept; however, this should be done as a menu item rather than as a Salad Bar concept. Since Wendy’s has placed a high emphasis on quality, a Salad Bar concept introduces various risk factors which may cause dissatisfaction among the customers. Risk factors such as foreign objects falling into items on the Salad Bar and the food area remaining sanitized are just two of the risk factors. Also, the Salad Bar concept would require additional labor to replenish the stock. To maintain a consistent standard, Wendy’s should prepare the salad and sell the item as a pre-packaged menu item. We also recommend Wendy’s further evaluate removing chili from the menu in the 128 restaurants in the southern states during the summer months since sales decrease to 40 percent during this time frame. Excess beef patties can then be used as a topping for a salad, such as a Taco Salad. References: Hoover’s fact sheet. (2003). Retrieved from: www.hoovers.com/wendy’s/–ID__11621–/free-co-factsheet.xhtml, www.hoovers.com/sonic/–ID__13112–/free-co-factsheet.xhtml, www.hoovers.com/krystal/–ID__15659–/free-co-factsheet.xhtml, www.hoovers.com/burger-king/–ID__54531–/free-co-factsheet.xhtml, www.hoovers.com/mcdonald’s/–ID__10974–/free-co-factsheet.xhtml on May 2, 2004. Moody’s OTC Industrial Manual. (1980). New York, NY: Moody’s Investors Service, 1565. Swanson, B. (2001). â€Å"New strategic plan combines the best of Wendy’s and Tim Hortons.† Wendy’s Magazine. 13. â€Å"Wendy’s strategic plan†. Retrieved from www.wendy’s-invest.com on May 2, 2004.

Philip Pearlstein Two Models with Blow-Up Chair & Salvador Dali Essay

Through the development of art, the fascination of the female body has been a main motif. It is Venus, Roman Goddess of love who has intrigued the artist, and held their attention for well over a few centuries. She has been not only Venus, but also Aphrodite (the Greek Goddess of Love), she has been Mary, mother of Christ in Gothic tradition and she had been found in the countless faces of women depicted by Picasso, Monet, Degas, Warhol (for isn’t Monroe a goddess? ). The link in these references is that this goddess, whomever she is, is holding the fascination of male artist. This is not to say that female artists have not taken up the trend which she invokes, but the purpose here is to discover how differently she is seen through their eyes in comparison with male visions of ‘love’. Pearlstein’s innovation in completing this project is one of Modernism, mixed with Realism. Pearlstein paints an oil painting of two females. They appear plastic wrapped within the canvas due to the severe highlights Pearlstein applies to both of their bodies. They lay beside each other, one on the chair the other next to the chair, and they both appear to be asleep. These two models or Venus’ are full frontal nude. The viewer is unable to see if they are ashamed or not from their faces because one of them is hiding her face and the other one’s head extends beyond the canvas (this is a trademark of Pearlstein). Though both Venus’ are or appear asleep they are active with the coloring and highlights which Pearlstein has seen fit to attribute to them. The line of light glares down the frontal figures body, highlighting the left breast, the stomach wrinkles and over the curves of both of the legs. This mimics the curves and highlights given to the plastic chair which she ‘sleeps’ upon. The other model fades into the background, yet still has that tiny shot of highlight upon the same appendages and other body parts which the first Venus had on her. The interesting item in this painting is that there are two female figures being painted. This is coupled with the fact that here too, like all the ones before it, Venus is apathetic, or at best the viewer is unable to tell what she (they) are feeling. Never mind the composition, Venus is still without a ‘voice’ in this painting. Through the very brief glimpse of feminine fecundity, and pulchritude, Venus remains elusive, and stoic. It has taken the art movement of the 20th century to see the full force of Venus. She has, with the help of female artists, broken her silence. In Dali’s oil on canvas The Persistence of Memory (1913) the theme of paranoia is persistent in this dreamscape. The distortion of the piece exudes a frightening use of spatial mobility and form. Surrealism is a way in which the expression of fantasy can be forthcoming in the world of Art. Dali exemplifies this notion in his use of foreground and background shapes and the pure psychic automatism which is symbolized in the clocks. Dali’s focus in this work is mainly about freedom; although the context of this work is based on paranoia and the weightiness of time the work is also free from previous constraints of other artistic movements in that it is not a painting dedicated to reason or moral purpose. Dali’s painting is that of a dream and reason becomes a series of disjointed objects in space; there is no rhyme in his work unless it is free verse; that is to say that there is no structure as prior to surrealism the viewer is used to seeing structure. Dali’s work often reflect what Virginia Woolf was so diligently experimenting with, which is unconscious writing or free narrative. Dali painted as though the conscious mind was sleeping, and that is why his paintings are so often reminiscent of dreams as Janson states, â€Å"The notion that adream can be transposed by ‘automatiatic handwriting; directly from the unconscious mind to the canvas, bypassing the conscious awareness of the artist, did not work in practice. Some degree of control was unavoidable. Nevertheless, Surrealism stimulated several novel techniques for soliciting and exploiting chance effects† (Janson â€Å"The History of Art 807) . Even the central figure in The Persistence of Memory is portrayed as though it were sleeping. The unfinished background is almost anachronistic with the foreground as it exhibits a cliff sliding off into a body of water. It seems as though Dali made the background on purpose to confuse the viewer since dreams are intended to be symbolic of personal meaning. The sky in the background also seems incomplete with no visible clouds but merely a color palette that drifts off into a sfumato haze. The background however is not what Dali wanted the viewer to be stricken with as a first impression. The central figure of the painting is unfinished as well. Dali painted an eyeball, and a nose and made no more attention to the rest of the figure. This feeling of incompleteness is unnerving and truly embodies the emotional state and perception of dreaming. The painting is purely inspired by that part of Dali’s unconscious mind. Although the painting exhibits that Dali used controlled in certain aspects of the work such as the use of diagonals, and linear shapes, but the overall impression of the painting lies within the angles, the objects and the general ambience of the piece. The clocks themselves prove to be unnerving both their positions and their lack of solid form, as though they are oozing across the plane in the foreground and the limb near the horizon of the painting, as well as across the half finished face. Another artistic ploy that Dali uses in The Persistence of Memory is his use of shadow; not merely darkness but the chiaroscuro so prevalent in the piece. This furthers the theory of this paper that Dali uses surrealism to tap into the unconscious and the dream world. Dali does the opposite in this painting of previous artists; he places the darkness in the foreground of the painting and the brightness in the background. This is symbolic because Dali wants to evoke to the audience that in the dream world the objects that are in front of the dreamer’s face are not always tangible but looming and undefined. In the background the objects are illuminated but this illumination does not add in defining the object because Dali here uses space to further illustrate his unconscious perspective; the objects in the background are too far away and cannot be seen. Thus, each part of the painting is uncomfortably defined. It is almost nonsensical; these objects of Dali’s in space without a coherent theme except for these persistence clocks. The clocks are the main meaning and focus of the painting and it is through these objects that the theory of this paper rests. The clocks present the theme of paranoia (as mentioned prior). Not only are they draped over the main objects in the foreground but their rendering is disconcerting. Each clock offers a different time, and one clock is closed so that the viewer cannot decipher its time. It is interesting that Dali did not distort the closed clock; it signifies a secret and further exemplifies the state of the dream world present in this painting; that is, the one clock that could offer a valid time is closed and unable to be seen by the painter, or the audience. The contention in the painting is that the central figure of the face is sleeping and is thus oblivious to the clocks, to time, to the unfinished landscape. That is the quintessential meaning of a dream; the sleeping figure is unaware to symbolism, to action, to time, and that is how Dali exudes incoherence in the dream world.

Biology (u2 ip&db) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Biology (u2 ip&db) - Essay Example 1) â€Å"Sunlight is converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the main energy-storing molecule in living organisms. ATP is then transported throughout the chloroplast and used to provide the chemical energy necessary to power other metabolic reactions† (GlobalChange, 2008, pg. 1). â€Å"Cellular respiration allows organisms to use (release) in the chemical bonds of glucose (C6H12O6). The energy in glucose is used to produce ATP. Cells use ATP to supply their energy needs. Cellular respiration is therefore a process in which the energy in glucose is transferred to ATP† (SUNY, 2008, pg. 1). Organisms that can use photosynthesis to produce glucose are also known as photoautrophs. Examples include soybeans, photosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacteria, bacteriochlorophyll, trees, and house plants. Organisms that can use aerobic cellular respiration to break down glucose to produce ATP are known as lithotrophs. Examples include bacteria and archaea. â€Å"Under anaerobic conditions, the absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid can be routed by the organism into one of three pathways: lactic acid fermentation, alcohol fermentation, or cellular (anaerobic) respiration. Humans cannot ferment alcohol in their own bodies, we lack the genetic information to do so. These biochemical pathways, with their myriad reactions catalyzed by reaction-specific enzymes all under genetic control, are extremely complex. We will only skim the surface at this time and in this course. Alcohol fermentation is the formation of alcohol from sugar. Yeast, when under anaerobic conditions, convert glucose to pyruvic acid via the glycolysis pathways, then go one step farther, converting pyruvic acid into ethanol, a C-2 compound† (Estrella Mountain Community College, 2008, pg. 1) When there is a chemical reaction, enzymes and catalysts lower the activation energy required. Each enzyme catalyzes only one reaction, so there are

Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 63

Essay Example Then, significantly his teachings and works here on earth, through miracles, and by his very own exemplary way of life. As this paper highlights and explains the Life of Jesus by elaborating the two distinct Natures of Jesus Christ; that is His Godly Nature and His Human nature. God in all His wisdom intended that all and everything He created was for Him and Himself, hence, all His creation was to live and stay with Him. God tried to use men (Abraham and the Prophets) to bring back their fellow men to Him, but Men did not shun their evil ways and turn back to God. In the end, God offered His only Son as a Sacrifice that brought men back to Him. The climax of God’s ordained was the incarnation of Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ was born in human form and nature, and lived as a man. This is actualized in the resurrection of Jesus Christ because in sins, men die with Christ on the cross and they are raised to new life in Christ on the resurrection (Romans 6:3-10). Also discussed in this paper are the lessons that People learn from the ideal life of Jesus. Consequently, for them to be united with God, they have to lead and live according to the teachings of Jesus. The life of Christ is all based on his salvific mission on Earth; to save mankind and bring them back to God. This is to fulfill/accomplish God’s work of Salvation and His sole purpose of creation; that was to unite all things in Him that all things may have eternal life in Him, (Elmer L. Towns 79). The Bible and other Historical writings show that, about 2000 year ago, Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem. His birth was mystical because it was through divine conception, where by the Angel of God appeared to a virgin called Mary, and she conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit. However, after the intervention of the Angel, Joseph took Mary as his wife, and together they raised the child. Jesus Christ grew up just like

Is the Fraud Act a Useful Tool in E-crime Prosecution Dissertation - 1

Is the Fraud Act a Useful Tool in E-crime Prosecution - Dissertation Example Even though in existence for more than four decades, the Thefts Acts of 1968 and 1978 were deemed archaic and hence inadequate, when dealing with crimes that were internet based, as they failed they to check the increasing number of e-crimes. It is for this reason the Fraud Act 2006 was legislated, which purportedly had a large scope for prosecuting e- crimes under the purview of general offences, and including modern e-crimes, like phishing, while also increasing imprisonment terms. In this context, the paper seeks to examine and analyse whether the Fraud Act 2006, in reality, is an effective tool in terms of prosecuting cases of e-crimes. 1 Introduction 1.1 Background study The 21st century has seen the rapid use of Internet in UK (and elsewhere), primarily owing to the easy availability of computers (especially laptops), high-speed browsers and fast connectivity through broadband. This is evident in a survey report, which showed that in 1996 around 3.4 million adults were using th e internet in UK, which by the next 10 years had expanded to a figure of 28.5 million internet users (8 times more).1 This rapid creation of an internet-based society has increased the information sphere available to users while also changing the very nature of communication between individuals within cyberspace, which started reflecting to some extent in the actual physical world. Despite many benefits, widespread use of Internet has revealed a negative side, related to crime and criminal activities. Internet being a mode of personal and financial transaction, which is highly reliant on net-based interactions that take place through computers, without the people interacting ever coming face-to-face, which increases risk during interactions, especially in cases of financial transactions. The various activities that take place within the cyberspace attracts different kinds of people, and it is relatively ease for criminals to identify similar minded people, form online communities, a nd carry on their criminal activities. One major factor, which increases instances of cyber-crimes, is the promise of large-scale financial remuneration from a virtual crime. As the Post Note survey confirms â€Å"Information security experts suggest that the motives behind computer crime have changed†¦ [and] is now increasingly financially motivated.†2 This change in motive has occurred mainly due to rise in e-commerce, where we find that with nearly 45% of internet users using some kind of a financial transaction via cyberspace, there has been increasing number of online credits/debit card frauds, attempts at extortion attempts, and phishing.3 Another major factor that has helped to aggravate the problem of cybercrime is the anonymity that Internet offers. A criminal may hide his /her own identity behind spam mails, spoofed mails addresses, or even proxy servers and commit online frauds. There are available, different encryption technologies that allow users to mask th eir actual identities, and various forms of software, easily accessible, which allow users to remove all electronic activity

School Procurement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

School Procurement - Essay Example It should be completed after a period of seventy two weeks. The report will also look at other alternative procurement routes and give their disadvantages. It will also examine the steps to be followed for effective project implementation (ETWB, 2004) From these differences, arises a number of procurement processes. The first alternative is 'competitive tendering/ develop and construct' under this scheme, the school can be designed by Southumberland County together with the community and then tendered to a principle contractor. The other route maybe 'design and build' which allows for design and construction by a principle contractor. There is also the 'construction management' procurement system which allows the client (in this case Southumberland County) to work hand in hand with a principle contractor who constructs the building while the client manages the construction process. Under the PFI procurement route, operations are done within a fixed price range. This amount is arrived at by considering inflation rate for the past twenty five and thirty years. If the contractor fails to meet his/her deadline then a penalty will have to be paid. This means that the PFI scheme is subject to inflation rate changes because costs of implementing the project will be subject to inflation changes yet the unitary payment will be changed at a different rate. An alternative like the design and build route arrives at its charges without consideration of inflation rates. 2.12 Unforeseen expenses If the project happens to the superseded its time limits, then extra costs will be incurred. These costs are met by the contractor and he will be the one on the loosing because it will minimize his profits. In contrast, however, another scheme like the design and build route leaves the maintenance of extra costs to the project initiator. This would not be economical for the County. 2.13 Defects on building In the PFI scheme, the risk of any defects found in the completed building will rest solely on the contractor. This implies that the contractor will do his best to ensure that he produces a quality product to avoid deductions that will have to be made on the unitary payment which the Southumberland County is going to pay. However, the design and build route has a time frame within which the employer can charge for defects. After that time frame, any defects will have to be settled by the employer. (Henderson Global Investors, 2003) 2.14 Value for money This scheme provides value for money because costs and risks are moved from the project initiator to the private contractor. Normally the unitary amount that is calculated prior to project work is slightly on the high side. Because there are a number of expenses that will be incurred along the way, this increase is fair. Develop and build under the PFI scheme allows the project initiator to get value for his money since he is free from any of the following risks: general maintenance, latent defects, construction overruns, management time and

Four Stages of Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Four Stages of Leadership - Essay Example Teamwork is also essential for any success of a leader (Stagish, 2006). This is because when a leader does not work with the employees, but instead issues orders, the employees can fail to work effectively. Through teamwork, the satisfaction of the employees will increase. There will be the creation of good ideas that will come out of the association between the leaders and employees (Kramer, 2002). For people to trust the leaders in a company, the leader has to portray some behaviors deemed ethical by the society. The leader should be honest in all the work that he does in the organization (Porter-O’Grady, 2010). He should be sincere when dealing with all employees and not exhibit double standard while issuing orders. The leaders should also have integrity. This means that, in all the decisions that he has to make, he should have the same stand. He should be able to show competence in his dealings. This means that the basis of his decisions should not rely on his emotions or his desires. The leader should also depict intelligence to their juniors. The employees will thus trust the leader’s opinion, since his intellect can be trusted. Vital behaviors are necessary for a leader to adapt and ensure that he achieves teamwork in all his dealings. The leader has to ensure he understands the benefits of teamwork. He should know that, through teamwork, creative ideas could crop up (Shockley-Zalabak, 2010). The leader should thus aim to encourage all employees to participate actively in meetings and jobs that they do. This will lead to the employees helping each other the moment they get a problem. The result will be a better time management as less time is wasted. Second level The organization should adapt the synergic approach. I believe that leaders of an organization can work well with the employees to make certain that they realize the objectives of the organization as well as benefit the society. This can be a milestone in increasing the growth of t he company (Holmes, 2005). The company needs to ensure the employees understand the need to please the society and achieve the goals of the company. The leader of the company should share and find ways of achieving the goals of the company through teamwork. The employees will then learn to help each other in the company, especially when they are in the same field in the organization. This is because when the employees work together, they learn to come up with an idea that works very well in a situation. The leader can analyze the effect of the change in the active participation of employees in the team (Salas, 2001). This way, they will appreciate teamwork, internalize it and use it in all the activities they do in the company. The leaders should also build their trust in the employees. They can do this by sharing with them and showing them that they can be trusted. Leaders should understand the imperativeness of earning the trust of the employees. Their consistency and competence a re what the employees will use to judge and trust them. A leader can openly tell the employees that he can be trusted, and act in ways that make the employees believe him. Third Level The purpose of the company should be to offer the best services for the clients of the organization. They should be very kind and respectful to them regardless of the attitude of the clients. This means that they should be very tolerant will all the clients. The employees should also be able to make

The mismatch between home values and school values Research Paper

The mismatch between home values and school values - Research Paper Example They fail to have plans as they are concerned with the present life, and this is helpful in explaining the problems such as drug taking that are on the rise among adolescents. The adolescence stage comes with it different problems which need to be tackled by the concerned stakeholders, mainly the teachers and parents, to prevent losing children who succumb into these problems. The emotional development that young people go through is mostly linked to these problems. When a young person gets to the adolescence stage, he or she develops the urge of wanting to be independent. This need of independence makes them create a distance between them and their parents (Janet 2014). The different myriad forms that young people go as they search for independence include having less overt affection, pushing things to the limit, being adventurous, and spending quite a good amount of time with friends. One major problem faced by adolescents is engaging in sexual activities that result into teenage pregnancies and the spread of diseases like HIV. Most young people engage in sexual activities due to pressure from their peers and engage in the taking of drug substances like alcohol. Schools teach students to be responsible for their actions and avoid misleading peers. Teachers encourage students to open up to them when faced with difficult circumstances as they are there not only to educate them but also advice them. In the home environment, these kids find themselves in situations where it is even difficult to communicate their problems with their parents. This is caused by the notion they bear that they are growing up or rather they are grown up and do not require any assistance from their parents (Maria 2013). Most parents are ever conflicting with their children, and this makes it hard for such children tell them things, which are disturbing them.

Research papper about Landscape Artist J.M.W. Turner Essay

Research papper about Landscape Artist J.M.W. Turner - Essay Example John Constable, a contemporary of Turner’s, was of the opinion that â€Å"painting was another word for feeling†. A highly versatile and prolific artist, Turner created more than five hundred oil paintings and thousands of water colors, drawings and sketches, and numerous engravings over his long career of over sixty years. Turner developed quickly as an artist producing his earliest drawing in the 1780s. From the young age of fourteen he received training in art from the Royal Academy due to his enormous talent, and was made a full member by 1802. Turner’s penchant for serious reading of learned treatises on painting, literary and historical classics contributed to his vast range of mind (Rodner: 1-2). He won early and consistent patronage and popularity, though in later years some of his freely executed individualistic canvases met with controversy (Rodner:2). The Subject Matter of J.M.W. Turner’s Works: The artist covered an enormous range of subject matter, and was proficient in the use of both oils and watercolors. His paintings were extremely varied. Several works were on similar topics as a series of paintings on historical events, Biblical narrations, rural landscapes, industrialized towns, castles, rivers, marinescapes, rain, catastrophic storms and avalanches, Venetian land and waterscapes, sunsets and sunrises, sketches and engravings and many more. Turner’s versatility is seen in the many genres as well as schools of painting such as impressionism, post-impressionism, romanticism, etc. Turner’s life spanned one of the most innovative and influential phases of technological development. With industrialization came production and manufacturing, the expansion of cities, dramatic rise in population were great influences on his art. Turner’s watercolors of multistorey mills, fiery furnaces and polluted skies reflect the startling novelty of industrialism. The perfection of the steam boat, the introduction of the railroad, revolutionized

Aims of Education Essay Example for Free

Aims of Education Essay Education has been conceived so variously in human history, especially in term of its aims. Chopra (2005) defines the term ‘Aims’ as: â€Å"Long-term ambitions which may or may not be achieved, but which provide personal motivation and direction† (p.16). Perhaps more than other aspects of human existence, it is education which lends a direction to human efforts through a certain underlying ‘philosophy’: â€Å"a set of ideas about the nature of reality and about the meaning of life† (McNergney Herbert, 1998, p. 130). However, aims of education depend on the philosophy that prevails at the time of determining the aims of education. Different philosophies hold different views about the aims of education: â€Å"Certain philosophies have created narrow patriots. Others have produced cultured individuals. Some others are responsible for bringing up spiritual men and women† (Shahid, 2001, p. 110). In fact, a philosophy or an ideology serves as a back-bone in determining the objectives or end results of an education system. 2.Western Philosophy and Aims of Education If we sift the history of education in the West right from the time of Greeks to the present contemporary era we would come across the following major schools of thought influencing the aims of Education: 2.1. Idealism: Idealism is considered the oldest philosophy of Western culture, dating back to ancient Greece. Socrates (469-399 B.C.), one of the most honored philosophers and the earliest exponents of the idealistic school of thought looked upon the aim of education as not verbal instructions but to enable the individual, by developing in him the power of thought to acquire knowledge by himself, i.e. by self-realization. For this purpose, he presented the Dialectic Method/Socratic Method which is also called Question/Discussion Method. 2.2 Realism: Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), a student of Plato and great Greek philosopher, was the leading figure of this school of thought. He believed in â€Å"dualism − the tendency to view reality as composed of two constituent elements †¦ form and of matter† (Kneller, 1964, p. 37). Following are the main aims of education in Realism: Equipping students with knowledge and skill needed to understand and master their physical environment. Enabling students to adjust themselves with adult approved behaviour. (Shahid, 2001, p. 141) 2.3 Existentialism: Soren Kierkegaad (1813-1855) is considered the originator of Existentialism. Existentialists believe that the physical world has no inherent meaning apart from human experience. Existentialists believe that the main aim of education is to: â€Å"Develop authentic individuals who exercise freedom of choice and take responsibility of their action† (McNergney Herbert, 1998, p. 139). 2.4 Marxism: The leading proponent of this school of thought was Karl Marx, an immensely influential German philosopher, political economist, and socialist revolutionary. He was famous for his analysis of history in terms of class struggles. The aims of education, according to Marxists, are: â€Å"Shape people and institutions; change material conditions of society, producing classless society† (McNergney Herbert, 1998, p. 139). 2.5 Behaviorism: B. F. Skinner, is called the father of Behaviorism. According to this school of thought, the aim of education is to: â€Å"engineer environments that efficiently maximize learning† (McNergney Herbert, 1998, p. 139). 2.6 Cognitivism: Cognition means the process of thinking and knowing. The aim of education, in cognitivists’ view, is to â€Å"develop thinking skills for lifelong self-directed learning† (McNergney Herbert, 1998, p. 139). 2.7 Naturalism: â€Å"Naturalism is based on the assumption that nature is the whole of reality†(Kneller 68). Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778 ) was the exponent figure of this school of thought. Rousseau stressed that what is natural is good. According to Naturalists, following are the aims of education: (1) Self-expression; (2) Autonomous development individuality; (3) Improvement  of racial gains; (4) Preparation for the struggle for existence. (Shahid 125) 2.8 Pragmatism: According to the Pragmatists, â€Å"truth [is] a tentative assertion derived from human experience (Kneller 82). The leading figure of the pragmatic educational philosophy was John Dewey (1859-1952), an American educationist. He believed that the aim of education is to â€Å"Develop and apply practical knowledge and skills for life in a progressive democratic society† (McNergney Herbert 139). 2.9 Perennialism: Perennialists believe that education, like human nature, is a constant. The leading proponents of this philosophy were Hutchins and Adler. Accorging to McNergney Herbert, â€Å"the perennialists argue people are basically the same, regardless of where they live and who they are, thus all people need the same basic education† and that â€Å"education should consist of a fundamental grounding in history, language, mathematics, science, literature, and humanities†(147). 2.10 Essentinlism: Essentialism asserts that ‘Essence’ is prior to ‘Existence’ and that â€Å"education †¦ involves the learning of the basic skills, arts, and sciences that have been useful in the past and are likely to remain useful in the future† (Kneller 256). The exponent figure of this school was William C. Bagley. The aim of education, as the Essentialists hold, is the â€Å"Acquisition of culture; cultural literacy for personal benefit† (McNergney Herbert 139). 2.11 Social Reconstructionism: A key word to learn when trying to understand postmodern education is constructivism. The leading figures of this educational movement was George Counts. The reconstruction theory seeks to rebuild the society afresh. Its supporters believe that the role of education is to create a new social order that will fulfill the basic values of our culture and at the same time harmonize with the underlying social and economic forces of the modern world. According to them, the aim of education is to â€Å"Solve social problems and create a better world† (McNergney Herbert 139). 3. Islam and Aims of Education Like Western philosophies of education, Islam also holds a view on the aims of education. However, it presents an independent, unique and much broader framework of reality, knowledge, existence and values to which the aims of education have got a logical connection. As a revealed religion, there is an objective quality of the goals of education in Islam. 3.1 Philosophy in Islam: Philosophy gets its roots from the ancient Greece. It emphasizes on the search of truth with the help of human reason. It is known as ‘falsafa’ in Arabic. On the other hand, Islam is founded on the Word of Allah or the revealed knowledge. The way Islam came into contact with philosophy is explained by Fakhry (1997) in the following words: The rapid expansion of Muslim Arab civilization in the 100 years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad [SAW] brought the faith into close contact with Greek, Persian, Egyptian, Syrian and Indian cultures and certain elements of those cultures incorporated (sometimes on adapted form) into Islamic thought. However, ‘Islamic Philosophy’ takes its roots from the Holy Qur’an. 3.2Education in Islam: The term ‘education’, as finds its meaning in Western philosophy, does not correspond very closely to any one exclusive term in Arabic. In fact, there are three words which are normally translated as ‘education’_ one emphasizing knowledge; one growth to maturity and one the development of good manners. However, all these concepts aim at producing good Muslims with an understanding of the Islamic rules of behaviour and a strong knowledge of and commitment to the faith. Ashraf defines Islamic education as: an education which trains the sensibilities of pupils in such a manner that in their†¦approach to all kinds of knowledge they are governed by the deeply felt ethical values of Islam. They are trained and mentally so disciplined that they want to acquire knowledge not merely to satisfy an intellectual curiosity or just for material worldly benefit but to grow up as rational, righteous beings and to bring about the spiritual, moral and physical welfare of their families, their people and mankind. Their attitude derives from a deep faith in God and a wholehearted acceptance of a God-given moral  code. (Hussain Ashraf 1) 3.3 Aims of Education: Complete Submission to His Will: Islam means complete submission to the Supreme Being of Allah (SWT) and His Shariah. The sole purpose of mans creation as described in the Holy Quran is to worship Allah (SWT): ÙˆÙŽÙ…ÙŽØ § Ø ®Ã™Å½Ã™â€žÃ™Å½Ã™â€šÃ™â€™Ã˜ ªÃ™  Ø §Ã™â€žÃ™â€™Ã˜ ¬Ã™ Ã™â€ Ã™â€˜Ã™Å½ ÙˆÙŽØ §Ã™â€žÃ™â€™Ã˜ §Ã™ Ã™â€ Ã™â€™Ã˜ ³Ã™Å½ Ø §Ã™ Ã™â€žÃ™â€˜Ã™Å½Ã˜ § Ù„Ù Ã™Å Ã™Å½Ã˜ ¹Ã™â€™Ã˜ ¨Ã™ Ã˜ ¯Ã™ Ã™Ë†Ã™â€™Ã™â€ Ã™ Ã¢â‚¬  And I have not created the Jinn and the men but that they may worship Me. (al-Zariyaat 51: 56) So, according to Islam, the purpose of the creation of humanity should also be the sole purpose, aim and objective of philosophy of Islamic education i.e. the complete, unconditional submission to the Supreme Will of Allah (SWT), the Almighty. As Rizavi puts it: Thus in Islamic creed, the idea of omnipresence of God permeates life in its totality †¦ God is everywhere and hence prayers can be said anywhere †¦ A Muslim is supposed to be in communion with God throughout his life — sitting on the prayer-rug, labouring in the field, defending his coun ­trys borders, in short, while doing anything and everything. (113) 3.4 ‘Taqwa’ (piety) and ‘Adl’ (justice) as the Cornerstones of Islamic Teachings: ‘Taqwa’ occupies a pivotal position in the aims of Islamic teachings. The Holy Qur’an considers it a requisite for getting Divine Guidance (‘Hidaya’): Ø °Ã™ °Ã™â€žÃ™ Ã™Æ'ÙŽ Ø §Ã™â€žÃ™â€™Ãš ªÃ™ Ã˜ ªÃ™ °Ã˜ ¨Ã™  Ù„ÙŽØ § Ø ±Ã™Å½Ã™Å Ã™â€™Ã˜ ¨Ã™Å½ Û›Ûš Ûâ€" Ù Ã™ Ã™Å Ã™â€™Ã™â€¡Ã™  Û›Ûš Ù‡Ù Ã˜ ¯Ã™â€¹Ã™â€° لّÙ Ã™â€žÃ™â€™Ã™â€¦Ã™ Ã˜ ªÃ™â€˜Ã™Å½Ã™â€šÃ™ Ã™Å Ã™â€™Ã™â€ Ã™Å½Ã›â„¢Ã¢â‚¬  † â€Å"This is a perfect Book; there is no doubt in it; it is a guidance for the righteous† (al-Baqara 2: 2) Regarding â€Å"the sacrifices offered by the Muslims at the time of ‘Hajj’ or ‘Id al-Adha, the Quran clearly says that the flesh of animals sacrificed does not reach Allah; what reaches Him is the piety or ‘taqwa’ operated behind these teachings†(Rizavi 115). The Quran also gives us a clue to the achievement of ‘taqwa’ or excellence of character: Ø §Ã˜ ¹Ã™â€™Ã˜ ¯Ã™ Ã™â€žÃ™ Ã™Ë†Ã™â€™Ã˜ § Ù‡Ù Ã™Ë†Ã™Å½ Ø §Ã™Å½Ã™â€šÃ™â€™Ã˜ ±Ã™Å½Ã˜ ¨Ã™  Ù„Ù Ã™â€žÃ˜ ªÃ™â€˜Ã™Å½Ã™â€šÃ™â€™Ã™Ë†Ã™ °Ã™â€°Ã¢â‚¬Å'Ûâ€" â€Å"Be just: that is Next to piety† (al-Maidah 5: 8). In fact, â€Å"With respect to man †¦ justice means basically a condition and situation whereby he is in his right and proper place† (al-Attas 26). Thus, Islam aims at preparing such persons who are pious and just. 3.5Justice implies knowledge: Islam has made it obligatory on all believers to acquire knowledge. In the very first verses of the Quran, the prophet Hazrat Muhammad (SAW) was instructed to read: Ø §Ã™â€šÃ™â€™Ã˜ ±Ã™Å½Ã˜ §Ã™â€™ Ø ¨Ã™ Ã˜ §Ã˜ ³Ã™â€™Ã™â€¦Ã™  Ø ±Ã™Å½Ã˜ ¨Ã™â€˜Ã™ Ã™Æ'ÙŽ Ø §Ã™â€žÃ™â€˜Ã™Å½Ã˜ °Ã™ Ã™â€°Ã™â€™ Ø ®Ã™Å½Ã™â€žÃ™Å½Ã™â€šÃ™Å½ â€Å"Convey thou in the name of thy Lord Who created Ø ®Ã™Å½Ã™â€žÃ™Å½Ã™â€šÃ™Å½ Ø §Ã™â€žÃ™â€™Ã˜ §Ã™ Ã™â€ Ã™â€™Ã˜ ³Ã™Å½Ã˜ §Ã™â€ Ã™Å½ Ù…Ù Ã™â€ Ã™â€™ Ø ¹Ã™Å½Ã™â€žÃ™Å½Ã™â€š Created man from a clot of blood. (al- ‘Alaq 96: 1-5) The best Islamic education must encompass the two traditional categories of knowledge, and the hierarchical relationship between them; revealed knowledge, attained through the religious sciences; and acquired knowledge, attained through the rational, intellectual and philosophical sciences. In Islam, both types of knowledge, the revealed and the acquired, contribute to the strengthening of faith, the former through the careful study of the revealed word of Allah SWT and the latter through the systematic study of the world of man and the universe. The Qur’an appeals constantly to reason and experiment which is a blessing indispensable to arrive at proper judgement. It invites directs the humans to study the reality. 3.6 Taqwa and Faith: The basic features of the Islamic constitution as embodied in the Quran Sunnah are the creed or doctrine (Aqeedah) or faith (trust and belief founded on authority) _ as belief in Allah SWT, faith in the prophet SAW and the basic attitude that all human activity should follow in the complete submission to Allah SWT. Islamic education has to inculcate these beliefs and attitudes in Muslim youth. The more comprehensive equivalent of ‘faith’ in the Arabic language is Iman derived from the root-word Amn which means freedom from fear, security, peace, satisfaction, trust, affirmation, acceptance of correctness and submission or resignation to truth. According  to the Holy Quran a Believer i.e. a Momin must have faith in (1) Allah, (2) The Hereafter, (3) The Unseen Clestial powers called Malaika (roughly translated as Angels), (4) The Book and (5) The holy prophets. (Haq 242) 3.7 ‘Ijtehad’: Side by side with the inculcation and strengthening of these basic values, Islamic education must create in the minds of Muslim youth an adaptability and a mechanism for adjustment to worldly matters. The Arabs were the first people to demonstrate such an adaptability during the prime of Islamic intellectual pre ­eminence. They acquired Greek learning, subjected it to investigation, experimentation and expansion in such diverse fields as algebra, geometry, astronomy, navigation, chemistry medicine and evolved the scientific principles of empiricism. This attitude extended into Europe in the fifteenth the sixteenth centuries as part of the Renaissance. The Islamic education system must now adopt the same scientific empiricism in worldly matters which the Muslims themselves invented but have forgotten during the past five centuries. The value of adaptability, experimentation and tolerance (as opposed to dogma) must be embodied in the new system. This will, in all probability, requi re the institution of ijtehad or interpretation of the Islamic law. An Islamic educational system is an integrating force and it prepares men for ijtehad where it is due. In the words of Iqbal: The teachings of the Quran that life is a process of progressive creation necessitates that each generation, guided but unhampered by the work of its predecessors, should be permitted to solve its own problems. (1989) 3.8 Action as Complementary to Faith: In Islam good actions are a requisite to faith. The Holy Qur’an says: † ÙˆÙŽØ §Ã™â€žÃ™â€™Ã˜ ¹Ã™Å½Ã˜ µÃ™â€™Ã˜ ±Ã™ Ã›â„¢Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"By the fleeting Time, Ø §Ã™ Ã™â€ Ã™â€˜Ã™Å½ Ø §Ã™â€žÃ™â€™Ã˜ §Ã™ Ã™â€ Ã™â€™Ã˜ ³Ã™Å½Ã˜ §Ã™â€ Ã™Å½ Ù„ÙŽÙ Ã™ Ã™â€°Ã™â€™ Ø ®Ã™ Ã˜ ³Ã™â€™Ã˜ ±Ã™ Ã›â„¢Ã¢â‚¬  Surely, man is in a state of loss, Ø §Ã™ Ã™â€žÃ™â€˜Ã™Å½Ã˜ § Ø §Ã™â€žÃ™â€˜Ã™Å½Ã˜ °Ã™ Ã™Å Ã™â€™Ã™â€ Ã™Å½ Ø §Ã™ °Ã™â€¦Ã™Å½Ã™â€ Ã™ Ã™Ë†Ã™â€™Ã˜ § ÙˆÙŽ Ø ¹Ã™Å½Ã™â€¦Ã™ Ã™â€žÃ™ Ã™Ë†Ã™â€™Ã˜ § Ø §Ã™â€žÃ˜ µÃ™â€˜Ã™ °Ã™â€žÃ™ Ã˜ ­Ã™ °Ã˜ ªÃ™  † Except those who believe and do good works† (al-‘Asr 103: 1-3) 3.9 Enjoining Right and Forbidding Wrong: According to Haq, â€Å"It [Islam] is not only a ‘religion’ of the Muslims, in the usual sense of the word; it is their whole life. It encompasses all aspects of human life: social, cultural, economic, educational, spiritual, material, political, in fact, all. A cult of universal brotherhood must, of necessity, be highly organized. (244) What Islam aims to produce are sentient and committed individuals who work for the promotion of all that is good and the renunciation of all that is bad for the ultimate success of all human-beings. The Holy Qur’an says: ÙÆ'Ù Ã™â€ Ã™â€™Ã˜ ªÃ™ Ã™â€¦Ã™â€™ Ø ®Ã™Å½Ã™Å Ã™â€™Ã˜ ±Ã™Å½ Ø §Ã™ Ã™â€¦Ã™â€˜Ã™Å½Ã˜ ©Ã™  Ø §Ã™ Ã˜ ®Ã™â€™Ã˜ ±Ã™ Ã˜ ¬Ã™Å½Ã˜ ªÃ™â€™ Ù„Ù Ã™â€žÃ™â€ Ã™â€˜Ã™Å½Ã˜ §Ã˜ ³Ã™  Ø ªÃ™Å½Ã˜ §Ã™â€™Ã™â€¦Ã™ Ã˜ ±Ã™ Ã™Ë†Ã™â€™Ã™â€ Ã™Å½ Ø ¨Ã™ Ã˜ §Ã™â€žÃ™â€™Ã™â€¦Ã™Å½Ã˜ ¹Ã™â€™Ã˜ ±Ã™ Ã™Ë†Ã™â€™Ã™ Ã™  ÙˆÙŽØ ªÃ™Å½Ã™â€ Ã™â€™Ã™â€¡Ã™Å½Ã™Ë†Ã™â€™Ã™â€ Ã™Å½ Ø ¹Ã™Å½Ã™â€ Ã™  Ø §Ã™â€žÃ™â€™Ã™â€¦Ã™ Ã™â€ Ã™â€™Ã™Æ'ÙŽØ ±Ã™  ÙˆÙŽØ ªÃ™ Ã˜ ¤Ã™â€™Ã™â€¦Ã™ Ã™â€ Ã™ Ã™Ë†Ã™â€™Ã™â€ Ã™Å½ Ø ¨Ã™ Ã˜ §Ã™â€žÃ™â€žÃ™â€˜Ã™ °Ã™â€¡Ã™ Ã¢â‚¬Å' â€Å"You are the best people raised for the good of mankind; you enjoin what is good and forbid evil and believe in Allah† (Al-i-‘Imran 3:110) 3.10 Sincerity of Motive (‘niyyah’): According to Rizavi, â€Å"Islam gives due consideration to human weaknesses, and, therefore, accepts from a person whatever he may achieve, with the sincerity of motive† (117); and that â€Å"Motive (niyyah) is a serious factor in the acquisition of education. In fact, Islam judges all conduct according to its motives† (116). 4. Conclusion:  The aims of education stem from the kind of philosophy directing them. Western philosophy, in general, is this world-oriented, and divorced from revelation, its aims of education have been changing and varying from one approach to another; it ignores the true self of man (both physical and spiritual); its chief sources of knowledge are senses, reason and intuition which are deceivable and temporary; it neglects the final purpose of man; therefore, it fails to provide one single approach and thus leaves man into chaos and confusion. On the other hand, Islam, having a divine base, aiming to bring man closer to God and seek His plea sure as his ultimate aim, is characterized by clarity, realism, sublimity and singleness of direction; thus, offering a solution to all of man’s problems and giving him a right direction in this world. References The Holy Quran. al-Attas. ed. Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education. Jeddah: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. Azam, Ikram. A Futuristic Paradigm of Education. Islamabad: ABC Enterprises, 2003. Chopra, Rakesh, ed. Academic Dictionary of Education. Delhi: Isha Books, 2005. Fakhry. Islamic philosophy, theology and mysticism. Oxford: Oneworld, 1997. Haq, Mazhar A. Educational Philosophy of the Holy Qur’an. Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture, 1990. Hussain, S.S. Ashraf, S. A. Crisis in Muslim education. London: Hodder Stoughton, 1979. Iqbal, A.M. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. Lahore: Iqbal Academy, 1989. Kneller, George F. Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. Los Angeles: University Of California, 1964. McNergney Robert F. Joanne M.. Herbert. Foundations of Education. London: Allyn Bacon, 1998. Rizavi, Sayyid S. Islamic Philosophy of Education. Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture, 1986. Shahid, S.M. ed. Philosophy of Education. Lahore: Majeed Book Depot, 2001.

Small And Medium Enterprises And Their Characteristics Management Essay

Small And Medium Enterprises And Their Characteristics Management Essay In the modern world economy, business transactions can be conducted within the same city, the same country, or even between two countries. The term of internationalization has been adopted by many researchers, for instance Bell (1995): A firms engagement in a specific foreign market develops according to an establishment chain, i.e. at the start no export activities are performed in the market, then export takes place via independent representatives, later through a sales subsidiary, and, eventually manufacturing may follow. Internationalization has become a significant research topic for business academics in the past forty years. A substantial amount of research has focused on multinational enterprises (Dunning, 1973; Markusen, 1995; Kogut and Zander, 2003), with a growing interest in the internationalization of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) (Oviatt and McDougall, 1994). Meanwhile small- and medium-sized companies (SMEs) have been believed to be significant in supporting economics improvement within a country (Mazzarol, Volery, Doss, and Thein, 1999). For example, in the Netherlands, SMEs account 98.8% of all private-sector companies, contribute 31.6% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and employ 55% of the total workforce (EIM Business Policy Research, 1999). Furthermore, obtaining sales outside their own domestic market is a goal of many small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and their governments (Economic Development Board, 1993). This thesis will be concentrated on the process of internationalization of SMEs, and especially the barriers of internationalization and motivations for export activities. In fact, SMEs are able to develop abroad since nowadays countries all around the world have become almost indistinguishable in terms of cultures and institutional settings (Johanson and Vahlne, 2003). 1.2 Problem statement According to problem indication, this there for leads to the following problem statement; What are the barriers and motivations of internationalization with regard to small and medium sized enterprises? 1.3 Research Questions The following questions will be posed in order to draw conclusions with respect to the problem statement: What are the characteristics of small and medium enterprises? How do the enterprises internationalize? What are the challenges and drivers of internationalization? 1.4 Research Method and Data Collection 1.4.1 Research Method This thesis will use a literature study as the method of research. To be able to answer the research questions, the research method that shall be used is the literature study. To develop a theoretical framework, exploratory studies are used in this research. It is the most ideal type of research for obtaining a clear understanding of the phenomena of interest (Sekarana, 2003). 1.4.2 Data Colletion Most of the resources used are secondary data which is data that have already been gathered by other researchers in the past (Sekarana, 2010). So far the author has found several journals and articles discussing internationalization of small and medium enterprises as the main source of this thesis. Firstly, literature based on drivers and motivations of internationalization of small and medium enterprises were sought using several search engines such as Google Scholar, and also database such as JSTOR. The following keywords were used: Internationalization, SMEs, Drivers and Motivations. These keywords were used separately and in combinations with each other. Secondly, more literature, articles and statistical data were found from the internet. Google is used as the search engine. Finally, to determine the quality of the literature, it is important to look at the number of citations from other high quality journal included in this literature. Another way to determine if literature is trustworthy is by looking at the references. 1.5 Structure of the Thesis In the remaining chapters the structure will be as follows: Chapter 2 shall review and analyze some of the definitions of small and medium enterprises and their characteristics, referring research question Q1. Chapter 3 will examine the theories and the process of internationalization. In chapter 4, I will investigate the opportunities and barriers to internationalization. In the final chapter, conclusions will be drawn and the problem statement will be answered. 2. SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES 2.1. Definition of SMEs There is no single, uniformly acceptable definition of a small firm (Storey, 1994). However, some definitions are very depending on criteria such as number of employees and turn over. In 1971 Bolton Report (Dawes Haydock in Frank, 1999) attempted to overcome the problem of small firm definition by formulating what it called an economic definition and a statistical definition. Under the economic definition, a firm is regarded as small if it satisfied the following three criteria: they had a relatively small share of their market place; they were managed by owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formalized management structure; they were independent, in the sense of not forming part of a large enterprise. The Committee also formulated a statistical definition which was designed to address three main issues. The first was to quantify the size for the small-firm sector and its contribution to economic aggregates such as gross domestic product (GDP), employment, exports and innovation. The second purpose was to compare the extent to which the small enterprise sectors economic contribution has changed over time. Thirdly, applying the statistical definition, this allows a comparison to be made among the contributions of small firms in one country with that of other nations. Furthermore, there is a lack of consensus on how to define SME (Gibb, 1993; Curran and Blackburn, 2001) as each country defines SME differently. For example, in the US and Canada, SMEs are generally defined as firms with fewer than 500 employees. In Japan, different headcount ceilings are used for manufacturing (up to 300 employees), wholesale (up to 150) and retail (up to 50). In this thesis we use the classification given by the Commission of the European Communities (2003/361/EC 2003). According to the European Union (2003), an SME is an enterprise with fewer than 250 employees and a turnover no more than 50 million Euros or a balance sheet total of no more than 43 million Euros. Small enterprises employ less than 50 and micro enterprises less than 10 employees. 2.2. Characteristics of SMEs SMEs are always one of the remarkable subjects for the researchers. It may be distinguished from larger firms by a number of key characteristics. Researchers have drawn some characteristic for the SMEs. Characteristics often discussed as typical of SMEs are as followed: Limited resources (Welsh and White, 1981). A small and medium enterprise generally has limited resources, which means they did not have money to purchase the required machinery and to hire many workers. This is extremely true for new starts-up due to an absence or lack of track record on the firm to entice potential investors and bankers. Hence, it is highly dependent on the capability of the owner to generate resources. Informal management style (Kotey, 1999 and Slade, 2005). For small and medium enterprises, the management is usually informal. The owner has to do almost everything and employees are normally expected to be able to duty as generalists as there is no clear division of tasks. Flexibility (Aragon-Sanchez and Sanchez-Marin, 2005). The enterprise has more flexibility to adapt to changes in the environment due to its size and informal structure. It is also vulnerable to grow in the enterprise environment. For example, any changes in government policy or technology might have a strong influence on the firms since instant changes require additional resources or capital. This might become a constraint to the firms to compete and sustain  itself in the market. Dependence on individual decision makers (Feltham and Barnett, 2005). The firms are managed and operated by the owner. The entrepreneurs of the business lead the company and play a role as both employee and employer. The growth of the firms is determined by the owner. Decision making is commonly done by the owner. 3. INTERNATIONALIZATION Different approaches and perspectives have been contributed to the literature firms internationalization (Morgan and Katsikeas, 1997), and these issues have been researched over three decades (Etermad, 2004). For instance, a gradual perspective of SME internationalization is explained in the Uppsala Model, and the Finnish-POM Models (Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975; Johanson and Vahlne, 1977). The other perspective is that SME internationalization is explained by an economic view (Dunning, 1977), and another view is described by a network approach (Kenny and Fahy, 2004; Majkgard and Sharma, 1998; Welch and Welch, 1998). The last view is described as the International New Venture perspective (Oviatt and McDougall, 1994; Zahra, Ireland, and Hitt, 2000). All these models are briefly discussed below. Of the gradual approaches, the Uppsala Model initiated by Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul (1975) and further developed by Johanson and Vahlne (1990 and 1977) is widely used to describe pattern of small firms internationalization (Andersson, 2004). In Uppsala Model, they make the distinction between state and change aspect of internationalization variables. They argue that the present state of the firm is the important factor in explaining future changes and subsequent stages. The state aspects are represented by the firms market commitment to the foreign market and the market knowledge about foreign market and operations. The change aspect is seen as commitment decision and the performance of current business activities. The concept of market commitment is assumed to be composed of two factors: Firstly, the amount of resources committed, for example, the size of investment in the market (marketing, personnel, organization etc.); Secondly, the degree of commitment, for instance, the difficulty of finding an alternative use for the resources and transforming them to practice. Market knowledge is seen as information about markets and operations which is somehow stored reasonable retrieval in the minds of individuals inside the firm, in computer memories or in written reports. International activities require both general knowledge about market operations and market specific knowledge. Current business activities are the prime source of experimental knowledge for the firm. It could be argued that experience could be gained alternatively through the hiring of the personnel with experience or through advice from persons with experience. Commitment decisions depend very much on experience since they are a response to perceived uncertainty and opportunities on the market. Decisions to commit further resources to specific foreign operations will more often be taken if experimental knowledge increases. This implies that additional market commitment as a rule will be made in small incremental steps because its takes time to gain experimental knowledge about foreign markets. The Uppsala model concentrates on the gradual acquisition, integration and use of knowledge about foreign market. According to this model, lack of knowledge is an important obstacle in the development of international operations and such knowledge can be acquired mainly through operations abroad. The gradual acquisition of knowledge increase foreign commitments. The second gradual model distinguishes three dimensions of internationalization (Luostarinen, 1979). First is Product (P), which describes what in terms of the firms goods, services, know-how and systems. Second is the Operation mode (O) which relates to how firms operate such as through agents, subsidiaries, licensing and management contracts. Third is Market (M), which describes where in relation to the selection of markets and takes into account political, cultural and physical differences. The organizational capacity dimension was a later addition to describe organizational structure, resources, finance and personnel (Welch and Luostarinen, 1988). Nonetheless, neither gradual model addresses the issues of networking. The networking view concentrates on non-hierarchical systems where enterprises invest to support and monitor their role in international networks. Referred to as the network perspective, this research draws on the theories of social exchange and resource dependence, and emphases on firm performance in the context of a network of interorganisational and interpersonal relationships (Axelsson and Easton 1992). Such relationships can include customers, competitors, suppliers, private and public support agencies, and friends, family and so on. Organizational boundaries therefore incorporate both business and social relationships. The theory suggests three methods of internationalization: International extension, explains how a company initially establishes connections with networks in other countries; Penetration, the firms develops the relationships that arise from those networks, which is described as the penetration method; International integration, the time when the company integrates the networks in different countries. Based to this research, internationalization determined by on an organizations set of network relationships rather than a firm-specific advantage. Therefore, externalization (rather than internalization) occurs. The network approach offers a complementary perspective to FDI theory given the latter does not account for the role and impact of social relationships in business transactions (Granvetter 1985). Also, internationalization decisions and activities in the network approach appear as patterns of behavior influenced by various network members, while FDI theory assumes coherent strategic decision-making. The network perspective introduces a more multilateral element to internationalization (Johanson and Vahlne 1992, p.12). Interestingly, this perspective has evolved from Johanson and Vahlnes early work, and reflects their ongoing research exploring the management of foreign market entry. For example, their (1992) study of internationalization in the situation of exchange networks found that even if foreign market entry is the gradual process (supporting the Uppsala model), it follow from interaction, and the development and maintenance of relationships over time. These findings support Sharma and Johanson (1987), who found that technical consulting firms operate in a network of connected relationships between organizations, where relationships become bridges to foreign markets and offer firms with the prospect and incentive to internationalize. The International New Venture theory emerged in the mid-nineties in response to the recognition that many firms do not go along with the gradual models in their internationalization process (Etemad, 2004a; Kenny et al., 2004). These firms are called Born Global (Knight and Cavusgil, 1996; Rennie, 1993), whilst Oviatt et al., (1994) identify them as Global Start-ups or International New Ventures (INV) firms. This model focuses on the age and not on the size of the firms and suggests that the INVs retain unique assets and capabilities that enable firms with limited resources to venture faster into foreign markets. Furthermore, Coviello and McAuley (1999) argue the internationalization happens gradually. With his extensive study of internationalization, Gripsurd (1990) points out that there is a three-stage model describing how an organization develops its international business study. First, the organization starts as a potential exporter, where they do not yet have the opportunity to export any of their goods or services. During this stage, the organization is still producing and distributing its products in the domestic market. Moreover, in the second stage, the firm is known as a passive exporter, where it has the opportunity to export its goods or services. However, they only represent upon request; therefore, there is no self-initiative. To continue, in the third stage, the firm is known as an active exporter, when it is increasing export activities abroad. With respect to the explanations, it is clear that Bell (1995) and Gripsrud (1990) mainly focus on the idea that internationalization develops in a number of stages. It happens gradually, not just with a single movement. 3.1 Process of Internationalization There are six steps that have been used for understanding about the internationalization of the small and medium enterprises. This process is not mattered only for the small and medium firms but applied in larger firms as well (Moberg and Palm, 1995 in Jennie and Zetterwall). These steps involved respectively, why internationalization (motives), company situation (SWOT), what (product and service), where (market selection), how (entry modes), and when (point of entrance). 3.1.1. Find out motives for internationalization. When a company goes internationalization it is often driven by certain stimuli or stimulus. Sometimes external and internal pressure such as competition, excess capacity of resources and a small and decline home markets put pressure on the company for becoming international. Other time firms go international because they want to. They have a unique product that is not widely available from international competitors or a technological advance in a special field (Czincota Ronkainen, 1995). 3.1.2. Clearly define the current situation of the enterprise (through conducting a SWOT analysis). To enter a foreign market does not mean new opportunities, but also a totally new situation with new environment and cultures. To find out whether a firm is ready to meet and handle this new situation or not, a complete analysis of the company situation has to be done by using SWOT analysis (Thompson Strickland, 1995, in Jennie Zetterwall). Companys economy, production, personnel, marketing, international experience and language capabilities are some factors those must be analyzed into SWOT analysis (Moberg Palm, 1995 in Jennie Zetterwall). Potential markets and marketing environment have to be analyzed to find attractive opportunities and avoid environmental threats. 3.1.3. Decide on the product or service enterprise wish to integrate in this process. The success of the firm depends on its products offered and on how well the firm is able to differentiate the product or service from what the competitors offer. When a company enters in a new market it should start with a small share of the assortment, mainly quality products or already established products. 3.1.4. Select the right market to penetrate. When firm decides to enter foreign markets, the customers and market conditions are quite different from their home market. That stage firms need to enhance international marketing strategies considering different aspect of the marketing such as product, price, promotion, place, logistics, competition, and so on. The firms strategies decided, whether use to the existing product or develop a new product to serve the foreign market. A firm operating the international marketing should not only identify the product for different markets but should also develop suitable strategies for growth such products. Whether a single standardized can be offered worldwide or a customize product need to be develop for each market is the most significant product decision that firms has to do while operating in international markets. In the international market, decision related to quality, packaging and labeling of product require specific attention and consideration. Product strategy of the firm in in ternational markets is often influenced by cultural context (Joshi, 2005). Therefore, it is a responsibility of the manager/owner to know the taste and preferences of the customer in a target market, and formulate the product strategy according to the marketing conditions. Sometime color, size, and packaging of the product play vital role in the success of the firm (Joshi, 2005). 3.1.5. Decide on mode of entry. After the selection of the market has been done, the company has to decide how to approach the foreign market. A firm can, for example choose to sell directly to the final consumer, to sell indirectly through distributors and/ or agents, or to produce locally in foreign countries. The choice depend on factors such as, resource of the exporting company, the characteristics of the product, the goal of the internationalization, the distribution culture in foreign markets, and the number and demand of the customer (Czinkota Ronkainen, 1995). 3.1.6. Find the right moment to do it. Furthermore, a company has to determine when to enter the foreign market. The company must be sure that market is ready, that the company has enough resources and the right market channel and product for specific market (Moberg Palm, 1995 in Jennie Zetterwall). Meanwhile, Masurel and Montfort (2006) explored the changes between stages in the life cycle of small and medium-sized enterprises in the professional services sector. They distinguish four different, subsequent stages in the life cycle. 1. Starting; 2. Growth; 3. Maturity; 4. Decline. They found that the first three stages represent an increase in diversification in sales, increase in differentiation of labor force, and increase in labor productivity. In the last stage, the diversification in sales, differentiations in labor force, and labor productivity all drop. As growth as one crucial key in this life cycle, SMEs starts internationalization which has become more and more relevant to the competitiveness of enterprises of all sizes. Recently, SMEs that start with a global strategy can change swiftly to take advantage of cross-border activities, which offers chances not only for revenue growth but also the exchange of knowledge and the development of capabilities, thereby strengthe ning the long-term competitiveness of the firm. 3.2. The Models of Internationalization Tookey (1969) developed an early example of modeling progression through various steps, pre-dating the Uppssalla model; this involved the advancement of the firm from exporting, to international marketing and finally international business The behavioural approach of the Uppsala views internationalization as having four stages (Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul 1975, Johanson and Vahlne 1977) while Bilkey and Tesar (1977) identify six steps, Aijo (1977), Cavusgil (1980) and Reid (1981) identify five, while Czinkota (1982) identifies six. Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul (1975), Johanson and Vahlne (1977) Stage 1: No regular export activities; Stage 2: Export via agents; Stage 3: Establishment of a sales subsidiary; Stage 4: Production or manufacturing in a foreign market. Bilkey and Tesar (1977) Stage 1: Management not interested in exporting; Stage 2: Management willing to fill unsolicited orders but not effort made to explore feasibility of actively exporting; Stage 3: Management actively explores feasibility of active exporting; Stage 4: Firm exports experimentally to psychologically close county; Stage 5: Firm is now an experienced exporter; Stage 6: Management explore feasibility of exporting to psychologically distant countries. Cavusgil (1980) Stage 1: Firm sells only in domestic market; Stage 2: Pre-export phase, the firm searches for information and evaluates feasibility of starting to export; Stage: Experimental involvement, firm begins exporting to psychologically close country; Stage 4: Active involvement, exporting to more new countries, direct exporting and increase in sales volume. Czinkota (1982) Stage 1: The completely uninterested firm; Stage 2: The partially interested firm; Stage 3: The exploring firm; Stage 4: The experimental firm; Stage 5: The experienced small exporter; Stage 6: The experienced large exporter. Reid (1981) Stage 1: Export awareness, problem of opportunity recognition and arousal of need; Stage 2: Export intention, motivation, attitude, beliefs and exporting about exporting; Stage 3: Export trial, personal experience from limited exporting; Stage 4: Export evaluation, results from engaging in exporting; Stage 5: Export acceptance, adoption of exporting or rejection of exporting. 4. DRIVERS AND BARRIERS TO INTERNATIONALIZATION Drivers of Internationalization There must be some motivations behind the decision to go international. Leonidou, Katsikeas and Percy (1998) determine that organizations are typically willing to market themselves for four reasons. First, it may be due to slow growth in the domestic economy as evidenced by a reduction in the number of the home market opportunities. Consequently, an organization will look for other opportunities by entering new international markets (Chandra, Styles and Wilkinson, 2009). Second, there may be a trade deficit followed by currency devaluation and a number of export restrictions. Third, the world trading system may become more liberalized leading to a minimization of international market entry barriers. Forth, it might be more intensive global competition in the global business environment. All these trends have developed the dynamic of exports. The creation of exports is not only due to the self-initiative of a company, but also by the government. This is also confirmed by Gripsrud (1990) who suggests that the government of a country may believe their firms to think globally by expanding their service areas to foreign markets, due to the expectation of an increasing volume of exports from the country. Thus, it will help the economy of that country. Furthermore, OECD (2009) also analyzed motivations for small and medium-sized internationalization including growth motives, knowledge-related motives, network or stoical ties and domestic or regional market factors. 4.1.1 Growth Motives Growth opportunities associated with international markets were identified as a key driver of firm internationalization in several recent studies (Orser et al., 2008), (Rundh, 2007), (Barnes et al., 2006), (Reynolds, 2007). The possibility of growth in other markets and increased profit opportunities from international expansion were highlighted as key stimuli for exporting. Firms overseas venturing decision also seems to be motivated by a need for business growth, profits, an increased market size, a stronger market position, and to reduce dependence on a single or small number of markets. The growth motives is very closely linked to maximizing returns and minimizing costs in purchasing, production and sales. 4.1.2 Knowledge-related Motives Garvey and Brennan (2006) suggest that knowledge assets both push and pull SMEs into international markets. The push dimension pertains to the importance of managers previous international experience and related management capacity factors. There are also related findings on the internationalization triggering effects of knowledge aspects, including RD investment, innovation capabilities, unique product or technology, and language skills; and firm resource base, as indicated by such proxies as size, age, and experience. 4.1.3 Network or Social Ties and Supply Chain Links Camara and Simoes (2008) have highlighted the importance of network/social ties and supply chain links in triggering SMEs first internationalization step and extending internationalization processes. The research studies particularly reported the stimulating effect on export activity of firms soft assets, including social and network capital, some of which may have accrued through managers immigrant background and associated links. 4.1.4 Domestic or Regional Market Drivers There is also support from recent relevant research (Lopez, 2007), (Staoian, 2006) on the push effects of firms limited or stagnating domestic market on internationalization behavior. The enterprise differed significantly in their export tendency, with export propensity increasing in regions with less favorable domestic conditions, local incentives to export and good export infrastructure. Recent evidence from Chile and Indonesia further suggest a greater tendency to export among firms from sectors characterized by high levels of export intensity and presence of foreign buyers. The Indonesian finding on the importance of foreign buyers presence is significant as it reinforces the earlier observed need to boost SMEs role in global value chains through facilitating their integration into production or supply systems of foreign affiliates of larger firms (OECD, 2008). 4.2. Barriers to Internationalization In order to identify the term internationalization with the main focus of the thesis, Coviello and McAuley (1999) stated that not only large organizations, but also small and medium sized organizations, can become global. In addition, they also state that the international expansion of an SME is certainly useful when it comes to contributing to the economic growth and prosperity of a country. However, one thing that should be remembered is that not every SME is ready to expand into international markets. Despite the fact that they have small or medium sized organizations, there must be some factors and limitations in terms of finding global market opportunities. There have been a number of studies which have focused on the barriers to internationalization (Leonidou, 1995; Campbell 1994; Katsikeas and Morgan, 1994, Morgan 1997). The barriers to internationalization can be categorized into five broad areas: financial, managerial, market based (including both the domestic and international markets), industry specific and firm specific. It is widely acknowledged that barriers to internationalization can exist at any stage in the internationalization process (Morgan, 1997). Furthermore, the perception of the barriers can vary in intensity depending on the degree of internationalization of the individual firm (Burton and Schlegeliclch, 1987; Cavusgil, 1984; Kedia and Chhokar, 1986; Katsikeas and Morgan, 1994). 4.2.1 Financial Barriers Limitations in finance and related physical resources have continued to be highlighted as a leading barrier to the internationalization of SMEs. It including financial barriers in general (Campbell, 1994; Burpitt Rondinelli, 2000), resource availability ( Karagozoglu Lindell, 1998), cost of operating overseas (Bilkey, 1978), and limited access to capital and credit ( Buckley, 1989; Coviello McAuley, 1999). The pertinent evidence include the observed disadvantages faced by enterprises international new ventures or early-stage SME exporters, relative to their more established counterparts, in regard to accessing operating and term loans and the terms thereof. Lack of capital requirements and other firm resources and limited access to key infrastructure were also reported by SMEs. 4.2.2. Managerial Barriers Difficulties arising from limited managerial knowledge base emerge as a top barrier to SME internationalization in several recent surveys. Managerial barriers are including managerial attitudes (Andersson, 2000; Burpitt Rondinelli, 2000), lack of international experience and skills (Karagozoglu Lindell), limited management time (Coviello McAuley, 1999; Buckley, 1989), commitment, and partnership difficulties. Managerial risk perceptions and lac

Essay --

The life of a Greek is typically average. You go to school, get a job, find the person you want to marry... you know how it goes. All of this changes when you are describing one specific type of Greek, a â€Å"Karpathian†, who comes from a tiny little island in Greece called Karpathos. To most non-Greeks, Karpathos is barely a tourist attraction, as there are much bigger and more interesting islands found within the country. But to us Karpathians, few other places compare to its magnificence. What is troubling, however, is the complicated process of dating and marriage. This society of people take everything you thought you knew about relationships to a whole new level. Everyone who’s anyone in the Karpathian community knows that nothing compares to a summer in Karpathos. The beaches alone could easily persuade you never to leave. During the course of the summer, there are multiple weddings scattered across the island. Surprisingly, these weddings are the epitome of what it means to be Karpathian. What does it take to reach this climax of a Karpathian’s life, marriage, one might ask. Well I can assure you that this process is anything but simple. To start off, the young are groomed from birth to become the highest quality spouse. Boys are expected to be an excellent student and go to Karpathos every summer. The island is their place to shine, so being seen in ordinary clothes could potentially be a big mistake. It is recommended that you pack the best brands money can buy: Burberry, Lacoste, Ralph Lauren, etc. Furthermore, if the brand is not clearly visible, you might as well not wear the article of clothing at all. The girls of the island have standards that are just as important. Ten pounds of makeup is a given, i... ... could quite possibly be â€Å"What does love have to do with being able to show off all of your cool things during the summer?†. The concepts that go along with this strange charade have not changed all that much throughout the years, but the methods certainly have. With social media now and integral part of everyday-lives, maintaing your appearance has now turned into a year-long affair. Since the summer is not the only time your potential spouses will be seeing you, (even if it’s via social media) you must post the right things and carefully stage photo-ops. Instagram, Twitter, and other social media applications have become virtual extensions of summer socializing in Karpathos. Above all, reputation is key, guard it no matter what. You do not want to risk the island knowing you are actually a superficial person that is only interested in possessions, now you do?

Stereotyping :: Psychology Stereotyping Stereotype Essays

Stereotyping Stereotyping is a form of pre judgement that is as prevalent in today's society as it was 2000 years ago. It is a social attitude that has stood the test of time and received much attention by social psychologists and philosophers alike. Many approaches to, or theories of stereotyping have thus been raised. This essay evaluates the cognitive approach that categorisation is an essential cognitive process that inevitably leads to stereotyping. Hamilton (1979) calls this a 'depressing dilemma'. Brown's (1995) definition of stereotyping through prejudice is the 'holding of derogatory social attitudes or cognitive beliefs, the expression of negative affect, or the display of hostile or discriminatory behaviour towards members of a group on account of their membership to that group'. This definition implies that stereotyping is primarily a group process, through the individuals psyche's within that group. A further idea of stereotyping, defined by Allport (1954) as 'thinking ill of others without warrant', is that people 'make their mind up' without any personal experience. This pre judgement about a whole group is then transferred to the stigmatisation of any individuals in that group. It is these ideas that the essay aims to evaluate, through the cognitive process of categorisation and the above definitions that bring about three distinct features of stereotyping, that our cognition can be demonstrated through. The first characteristic of stereotyping is over-generalisation. A number of studies conducted found that different combinations of traits were associated with groups of different ethnic and national origin (Katz and Braly, 1933). However, stereotyping does not imply that all members of a group are judged in these ways, just that a typical member of a group can be categorised in such judgements, that they possess the characteristics of the group. Still, when we talk of a group, we do so by imagining a member of that group. The second feature and characteristic of stereotyping is the exaggeration of the difference between ones own group (the in-group) and the 'other' group (the out-group). This can be traced back to the work of Tajfel during the 1950's - 'the accentuation principle' (Tajfel, 1981). Tajfel's work was specifically on physical stimuli, and concluded that judgements on such stimuli are not made in isolation, but in the context of other factors. Applied socially - a judgement about an out-group relies upon other factors surrounding the judgement in question, as well as making a statement about the in-group and the relationship between the two groups.

African American Musuem

Intro to Museum Studies Professor Kirsch September 19,2010 The African Museum in Philadelphia is notable as the first museum funded and built by a municipality to help preserve, interpret and exhibit the heritage of African Americans. Opened during the 1976 Bicentennial celebrations, the AAMP is located in historic Philadelphia, a few blocks away from the Liberty Bell. Charles H. Wesley was a noted African American historian, educator, and author.He was the fourth African American to receive a Ph. D. from Harvard University. An ordained minister, Wesley’s distinguished career included 40 years of leadership with the African Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1976, he served as Director of the Afro-American Historical and Cultural Museum in Philadelphia, now known as the African American Museum in Philadelphia. Programs The African American Museum that is located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania has some interesting education programs.These education programs focus on arts, culture, a nd heritage education. They place a major emphasis on the interests of the students, educators, artists, historians, scholars, and community organizations. These programs offer diversity with scheduling. The programs explore various African forms of cultural expressions. In these programs there are literary performances, hands on demonstrations, workshops, and storytelling performances as well.The African American Museum in Philadelphia feels its programs can be a vital link between the permanent and visiting collections for the many communities they serve. Exhibitions The exhibitions in the African American Museum in Philadelphia can some to be pleasing to the eye and stimulating to the mind. According to the African American Museum of Philadelphia these exhibitions invoke a deep collection of emotion ranging from pride and passion to excitement and enthusiasm.When visitors enter the museum they will come to Gallery 1, which includes a interactive timeline, images draw from histori cal record, that spans 100 years of history. In Gallery 2 there are full size video projections in which visitors can in engage in them. Once they are activated, a monologue about life in Philadelphia will begin. Some other aspects of the exhibit include an experience where you can walk the streets of Philadelphia through a large scale map, which is located between galleries 1 and 2 .

Goal Line Technology Essay

Introduction Soccer is undoubtedly one of the most popular sports worldwide. From regional club championship to the world cup, each soccer event is watched with tremendous enthusiasm by people all over the world. As soon as the match starts and until it ends, soccer fascinates its viewers by passes, shots, tackles, free kicks and penalties. Of course, in the course of all this, there are also goals. Whenever the ball enters the goal, it is a moment of triumph. For a moment everyone watching is left awe-struck until the realization sets in, and then there is much rejoices. However, what if, the referee blows his whistle and says the goal was invalid. Moreover, what if, a ball that was seemingly deflected by the goalkeeper is counted as a goal. Obviously, this would have its repercussions, but this is the idea pronounced in the goal line technology. Two IFA-approved methods of implementing goal line so far exist – Hawk-Eye and GoalRef. To start a discussion about goal line, it should be unde rstood how each of these technique works. Hawk-Eye, the more favored technique, is one which is already being utilized in the sports of cricket and tennis. The technique makes use of six high-speed cameras linked to fast-processing computers. These cameras track every movement of the soccer ball as it moves through the field, and the computers calculate the relative position on the ball based on metrics provided by the cameras. When the ball would pass the goal line, the computers would be able to determine this and the possibility of a goal would have to be judged. The technique is more favored because of its potential to produce excellent 3D replays of what took place, and also because it can be used on-field for other purposes than just goal line. For instance, the curves a specific free kick shot took, or even if an offside actually occurred or not could be realized with the help of Hawk-Eye. However, this technique would be quite expensive to implement. High-speed cameras aside, every soccer stadium would also need to implement black netting which is also a prerequisite of Hawk-Eye. On the other hand, GoalRef is a much more economical option. GoalRef makes use of a low-powered magnetic field around the posts and a magnetic probe in the ball. As soon as the low-powered magnetic field is found to be penetrated by the magnetic probe completely, the referee is notified through a hand-held device that a goa l has occurred and the referee can announce it almost immediately. The relative simplicity of the design and technology being used also makes it easier for ball manufacturers to add probes into the balls. However, compared to the multiplicity of uses that Hawk-Eye provides, GoalRef is a bit lacking. Taking into consideration these factors, the discussion in this paper would focus on both the technologies rather than one. (EuroSport, 2012) Goal line technology has been debated from both ends of the argument by various soccer overseeing bodies – such as FIFA and UEFA – for much of the last decade. However, to-date, no compromise has been reached. There are two reasons for which goal line technology has been proposed. Firstly, according to international soccer rules, a goal is scored if a ball completely passes the goal line. However, the on-field referee cannot judge this as he has to stay away from the goal during times of attack and defense. In the recent past, this inability of referees has resulted in many wrong judgments. Secondly, the use of decision-aid technology is being aggressively integrated in various other sports. With every passing year, popular sports across the world are introducing decision-aid technology to either aid existing referees or even replace them. As the pressure on soccer associations mount, it has become necessary to realize whether goal line technology is good or bad for the game. This paper would argue that goal line technology is essential as it provides essential benefit to the game and also because arguments against it are largely invalid. Providing Transparent Justice The inclusion of technology, however slight, in decision-making capabilities would enhance the decisions made by the referees. The refereeing system employed in soccer is known to possess quite limited capabilities (Collins, 2010). In essence, it consists of three individuals; a main referee and two assistant referees. The standard is that the main referee runs diagonally from the north-east of the field to the south-west. However, the main referee does not normally enter the penalty area. However, both of the aforementioned criteria are not strict and the referee can follow his own path during the course of the match. As the diagonal run of the main referee covers the north-east and south-west area of the field, the assistant referees essentially are responsible for judging the north-west and south-east area of the field. The assistant referees are also responsible for calling offside and throws. From this brief description, it might seem that the refereeing system is quiet adequate . However, this is quite incorrect as this system does not allow the referee to provide what is known by transparent justice, i.e. what appears to be the most correct decision (Colwell, 2000). First of all, it should be noted that the issue of transparent justice only arose in the last 15-20 years as broadcasting of soccer matches and events grew only more popular (Colwell, 2000). Before that the referee’s decisions were largely associated with presumptive justice, i.e. justice is done because one was in position to assess it. This presumptive justice was assumed to be transparent justice. The referee called it as he saw it, and that was the end of it. The referee’s authority was based on the notion of epistemological privilege, i.e. the referee was in the position to best see it as it is, as he had the closest view of the player’s action and he possessed greater knowledge of soccer rules (Colwell, 2000; Collins, 2010). However, with television broadcasting, there came the concept of replays. The replay allowed the viewer to see from multiple of angles an event within the match. Moreover, even the notion of speed could be slowed down to clearly realize what actually happened within a particular event in the match. Even further, the rules of soccer were quickly made available online and the growing interest in soccer made players known to most of the rules (Leveaux, 2010). The epistemological privilege that the referee held had been completely desecrated when newer technologies came to be known (Colwell, 2000). The referee no longer had the superior view, as the viewers through television often could see what actually occurred from different views and even speeds. This provided the viewer to be in a position of greater epistemological privilege than the referee. As the referee has lost his epistemological privilege, it has only become questionable that soccer relies only on the referee to make decisions. Some might even question whether referees are even needed as even a knowledgeable individual watching the match from a television set is bound to make better calls than the on-field referee. The loss of epistemological privilege is best seen in the penalty area. The most intense of occurrences in soccer tend to occur in the penalty area (Collins, 2010). However, it is also one area where the referee cannot be present (EuroSport, 2012). As is quite freq uent, the penalty area tends to be filled up with defenders and attackers during an intense play, and the referee can in such a position only view from far. Moreover, any decisions that the referee makes is from a distant viewpoint or either through the help of an assistant referee (Collins, 2010). However, this means that the referee is not able to call it as it is, but rather call it as he sees it. This means that the referee is no longer the best provider of transparent justice in a match. The issue particularly arises as sometimes during most intense of plays the ball barely passes through the goal line and is then quickly pulled out by a defending player or the goalkeeper. Such an occurrence cannot be seen clearly either by the referee or any of his assistants. It should now be noted that the goal line technology allows even such a brief event to be recognized and hence transparent justice to be provided. For this reason, as a goal line technology would provide better justice, and as the notion of fair play requires that better justice be provided, the argument for the implementation of goal-line technology only gathers momentum. The Invalidity of Arguments Against The main reason for not implementing the technology is said to be that it would reduce the fun in the game. Although this reason seems to be one of the weaker ones that can be given against GLT, it also seems to be the one that many aficionados and supporters favor. For them (and it seems for FIFA), it is these types of incidents in sport that gives it value and makes it entertaining. The notion that fans still argue about England’s goal against Germany in 1966 and their more recent disallowed attempt in the 2010 World Cup as well as countless incidents in club games, indicate that these events remain in footballing consciousness. Yet at the same time, people seem wedded to the idea of justice and fairness and would protest vehemently if they or their team were unfairly penalized or given an undue handicap. Furthermore, in professional sport, where careers and livelihoods are dependent on fair and impartial decisions, the idea that sport is better by not implementing technolog y that would assist in sporting justice seems peculiar indeed. (Leveaux, 2010; Ryall, 2012) The philosophy of sport literature is replete with discussion on fairness and justice so much so that it arguably accounts for the greatest proportion of academic thought in this domain, whether this centers on doping, cheating, spoiling, or the characters and virtues of those involved. So to say that it doesn’t really matter whether sport is fair or not seems to be inconsistent with the amount of time and effort devoted to discussing it. Sport is based on a notion of fairness however that notion is defined. If players didn’t think that they were being given a fair chance (and this includes handicaps in sports such as sailing and golf) then they would soon give up participating. As such, it would be absurd to argue that officials (at the bequest of governing bodies such as FIFA) provide these controversial incidents so that fans have something to argue about in the pub. Referee Jorge Larrionda didn’t disallow England’s goal against Germany in 2010 because he was being unfair, he simply made a mistake in his observation. As far as Larrionda was concerned he was attempting to be as fair and consistent with the rules as possible, it was his observation skills that let him down. As is noted with reference to FIFA’s other reasons, human error is something that FIFA is happy to accept and even embrace. FIFA’s response may be that since these incidents are rare, the benefit gained from them in entertainment value outweighs the cost to the game itself. What FIFA doesn’t consider in this response however, is the cost that is borne by individual stakeholders, such as managers, players, club owners and investors. Such a cost / benefit analysis, that FIFA appear to adopt with this reason, is a very crude tool to use at the business end of the game. Hence, FIFA’s argument is largely unfounded and does not have any basis. (Leveaux, 2010; Ryall, 2012) Support for Technology Implementation Another reason why technology should be implemented is because the implementation of technology has gathered tremendous support in the past few years. Especially after the incorrect calls in the 2010 World Cup and in some recent league championships, viewers, players and even soccer clubs themselves have called upon FIFA to test and promote implementation of goal line technologies (Ryall, 2012). Even FIFA itself recognized the need for goal line technology after the blunder of the 2010 World Cup (Leveaux, 2010). Despite the necessity of it being realized and this much support, FIFA has time and again waivered on its stance to implement goal line technology. More recently, the head of UEFA blatantly renounced goal line technology by stating that this is not what the fans want, and this is not what the referees want, and this is not what the soccer clubs themselves want. However, there can be no absurd and blatantly wrong assumption than this. A study of the referee’s viewpoints on implementation of technology was conducted by Leveaux (2010). The study interviewed nearly 40 referees from soccer, and also many others from other sports. The referees were interviewed on a variety of topics, one of which was the implementation of technology. Interestingly, majority referees called for decision-aid technology to be implemented in their respective sports. Amongst soccer referees this majority was unanimous. All soccer referees called for technology to be implemented in soccer. Two rationales were provided behind this by the referees themselves. The referees first stated that the notion that soccer is a simple game that has not been intruded by technology so far is incorrect. In fact, technology is currently utilized by referees themselves in pre-game preparation and also in monitoring time-related events, i.e. extra time. Hence, if any implementation is denied on the basis that technology would make the sport lose its charm, it was wrong according to the referees. Moreover, the referees said that the burden of wrong decisions often falls on them and there is not much protection provided to them when such cases occur. Indeed, there are stories of referees being verbally abused for a wrong call. In some cases, referees have also been abused of making right but unpopular calls. The rationale then was that by including goal line technology, the referees would be able to steer the burden of the any possible decision away from them to the accurate technology. Hence, it should be noted that referees were in support of such an implementation and not against it as UEFA and FIFA would have one believe. Even fans and players support the notion of goal line technology. A survey conducted amongst avid soccer fans in AUS also resulted in a similar viewpoint. The survey focused on two questions. The first question was how much does an individual debate on the notion of whether the ball passed the goal or it did not. The second question was straightforwardly asking whether goal line technology should be implemented or not. Around 50 AUS students were surveyed, and all of them were avid fans of soccer. The results found vastly supported the implementation of goal line technology. It was found that a very insignificant minority (15%) actually debated things such as whether the ball passed the goal line, and most people often did not even notice when such things happened during the match. Moreover, nearly 95% said that a technology should be implemented if it allows for a better call on whether a goal has occurred or not. The reason behind this was that soccer fans would like goals to count in a sport where goals rarely occur at times. For instance, in between teams of equal strength, even a single goal could decide the match; however, often the games go on to penalty, and this is more undesirable than even the slight opposition to goal line technology. It should also be noted that a literature review found that most soccer players tend to be supportive of goal line technology. This was because most of these people often worked hard to bring the ball from one half to another, and when a goal that had occurred was not awarded it was often cause for frustration. Hence, it should be realized that implementation of goal line technology held massive amounts of support in fans, referees and players. Conclusion From the discussion above, it is quite clear that the argument for the implementation of goal line technology has a lot of benefits and support. The use of different systems can also allow to make the match only more interesting rather than disrupting to the game’s ‘flow’ or element of ‘interest’. Moreover, the arguments against do not have any actual basis in them. Surveys and literature review have not found any arguments to be valid. More or less, the arguments against is based on the opinions of a select few people are known to be conservative and whose personal interests in the game are affected by the technology. In comparison, an astounding majority supports and advocates the use of goal line technology, and this includes soccer players and almost all soccer fans. It should be noted that the world is changing everyday as newer technological progress is made. In this technologically progressing era, it is only questionable that a sport as popular as soccer has not implemented any aspects of technology within it. When even the most mundane of sports such as cricket have included not only one but dozens of technology that aid in decision-making to its umpires. For these reasons, it should be realized that soccer games should possess goal line technology. References Colwell, S. (2000). The ‘letter’and the ‘spirit’: Football laws and refereeing in the twenty†first century. Soccer and Society, 1(1), 201-214. Collins, H. (2010). The philosophy of umpiring and the introduction of decision-aid technology. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 37(2), 135-146. EuroSport. (2012, July 5). Goal-Line Technology: How Does It Work? EuroSport. Retrieved from http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/ Mignerat, M., & Audebrand, L. K. (2010). Towards the Adoption of e-Refereeing and e-Ticketing in Elite Soccer Championships: an Institutional Perspective. Paper submitted to International Conference on Information Systems, St. Louis, Missouri. Leveaux, R. (2010). Facilitating Referee’s Decision Making in Sport via the Application of Technology. Retrieved from http://bisongbakiaholmes.files.wordpress.com/ Ryall, E. (2012). Are there any Good Arguments Against Goal-Line Technology? Sports, Ethics and Philosophy. Retrieved from http://goo.gl /6eX4p